The French Revolution (1789-1815)

The French Revolution spelled the end of what were later called the ancien regimes of Europe: regimes that, although dabbing in Enlightenment ideas, essentially justified themselves by absolute rule with a centralized bureaucracy and a strong army, such as Frederick II of Prussia and Catherine II of Russia, as well as French kings Louis XV and Louis XVI.   It introduced a brand new form of government in Europe, the government of republicanism, represented by the slogan "liberty and fraternity," a republicanism that the French, years earlier, had helped the American colonists achieve. The revolution was divided into several phases: the first phase, from 1789 to 1793, when the French revolutionaries were not ready to completely do away with the king, and France remained a monarchy.  From 1793 to 1795 French Revolution entered into its most violent phase, when the king, queen, and thousands of others were executed.  From 1795 to 1799 France was ruled by an ineffective one chamber parliament.  And from 1799 to 1815 a charismatic officer Napoleon Bonaparte took over and started to export the revolution abroad, only to be defeated by a coalition of foreign forces in 1814 and again, in 1815.   The French Revolution, although it eventually failed, was a political lesson learned by all in Europe.  It ushered Europe into the "century of revolution" when many European countries fought for the rights the French had fought for in the revolution, and when European governments were forced to make concessions and become more inclusive of the middle class and ultimately the working class.   It was through these revolutions that universal suffrage (one man one vote) and the welfare state were eventually established in Europe in late 19th and early 20th centuries.

1.Why the French Revolution was important

It brought the People to the forefront of politics, set the model for later revolutions, and changed the political map of Europe forever. It is yet another example of how democracy was won as concessions from the state after strenuous bargaining.

2. Sketch of Events 

• 1788-89 French State undergoes a massive revolution in politics but also in society and the way people think. The calling of the Estates General in 1789 was the catalyst for the Revolution. 
• 1789-1792 - Liberal Revolution 
• 1793-1794 - Radicalization 
• 1795-1799 - Ineffective Reaction 
• 1799-1815 - Napoleon 

3. The Causes of the French Revolution 

    A. Intellectual Causes 

• The Enlightenment: scientific and philosophical thought had been generalized in the 18th Century. There was now a much larger intellectual class with the political ideas that the Enlightenment had spread around Europe. 
• What was later called Liberalism was popular.  Liberty - Human Rights/Natural Rights.  The sovereignty of the people. Equality - meant equal rights for all under the Law. 
• Liberals also wanted freedom from a state-controlled economy. Property was seen as sacred. These were middle class property owners by and large. 
• After Montesquieu, a republic as regarded as at least theoretically noble and possible. 
• The influence of Rousseau’s Social Contract, and belief in the general will of the people. 
  
  The American Revolution: France had helped Americans vs. Britain and many Frenchmen, such as LaFayette, were to be important in both revolutions. Victory for the new USA was in 1783.

B. The Problem of the Estates System

 First Estate: The Clergy 

1% of pop, with 10% of land.They had wealth, land, privileges and they levied a tax on the peasantry, the tithe, which generally went to some remote bishop or monastery rather than the local parish priest.
The First Estate was perhaps 100,000 strong. But there were many poor clergymen in this Estate, who were going to support the Revolution.

Second Estate: The Nobility

2-5% of pop, with 20% of the land. They also had great wealth and taxed the peasantry. 400,000 people.  The great division among the Nobility was between the Noblesse d'epee, dating from the Middle Ages, and the Noblesse de Robe: later nobles whose titles came from their possession of public offices. 

Third Estate: Everyone Else

95-97% of the pop.  There were a few rich members, and the artisans and all the peasantry. These were also class divisions. 

Subdivisions of the Third Estate

1.The Bourgeoisie
8% of the pop, about 2.3 Million people, with 20% of Land. They often bought land and exploited the peasants on it. The Bourgeoisie had been growing throughout the century, to some extent encouraged by the monarchy. By 1788 it was very important and its members were well read, educated and rich (fivefold increase in trade 1713 -1789). But this important group had no say in running the country. 

2. The Peasants
with 40% of the land, formed the vast majority of population. There was population growth in this period: perhaps 3,000,000 people added over the century. Peasants paid the most tax: aristocrats did not pay. Peasants alone paid the taille. They alone had to give labor service to the State. They also had to pay the tithe, in kind, to the clergy. As well as these taxes, peasants had to give services to their Landlords: this is sometimes called `feudal' service. They also pay dues to their feudal (seigniorial) lord when they sold land that was in all other ways their own. Poverty was intense, but varied by region.
Peasants farmed the land, and regard it as their own, but it was not legally theirs. What they wanted was to own their own property. This was radical only at the start. Later it was to be a conservative desire.

3. The Urban Poor of Paris 
Artisans - factory workers, journeymen. The very poor were probably less involved in politics. Artisans had different interests than the bourgeoisie. but they played important role at several points. They were the most politicized group of poor people, possibly due to high literacy.
[Note: Literacy was comparatively high among all classes in northern France. This had the effect that everybody could imbibe the new ideas that came out in pamphlets.] 

Despite the class divisions and tensions outlined here, the Revolution actually began as an aristocratic revolt against the monarchy, but two main groups of poor people did affect the revolution decisively. 

What are the grievances of the three estates in France? 

• Clergy: did not like third estate to have power; complain about prices; not all rich; 
• The aristocracy: lacked sufficient power; yet were expected to be taxed; not all nobles were rich.
• Third estate: greater interaction between certain groups of the middle class and nobility; wanted tax reforms and more political representation;

C.  Political Causes - The Run-Up to 1789 

Successors to Louis XIV and The Weakening of Absolutism: Under Louis XIV flaws in theory of absolutism had been apparent: now they become obvious; the misuse of power, kings who couldn't rule.

Louis XV 1715-74 
Succeeded at age 5. He was poorly educated and spent a life devoted to his mistresses. The nobles began to regain some of the power they had lost to Louis XIV under the regency of the Duc D'Orleans, but in general the nobles proved incapable of governing.  In the Parlements, the French law courts, nobles continued to struggle with the monarchy until the Revolution, a struggle that seriously weakened it. One thing they would not give in was increase of taxes. 

Louis XVI (1774-1793)

Louis XVI's government was not an old fashioned ancien regime. There were some reforms that lead people who dislike the French Revolution to think that things may have turned out very differently. •Louis XVI was virtuous - but uninterested in government. [In his Diary July 14, 1789, he wrote: "Nothing", he meant he caught nothing hunting that day.] 

Conflict with Parlements and Ruling Classes

Parlements were courts, not an assembly like the English Parliament. They had the power to register laws from King.  There were 13 Parlements in all throughout France, but the Parlement of Paris was the most important.  They began to claim, with no really good reason, a right of veto. Traditionally a King could always override Parlements with a lit de justice. 

Parlement and king

Parlements had been abolished in the 1770s under Louis XV.  Louis XVI revived them 1774, in an attempt to be popular.  This move was to prove fatal, given the financial problems Louis XVI faced later, when Parlements became centers of resistance to the King. 

D. Economic Weakness 

The Revocation of Edict of Nantes 1685 had struck a blow at French commerce. The economy tottered for the next hundred years. Financially the origins of the Revolution go back to Louis XIV (but not because of the cost of Versailles). 

Taxation Problems

The Richest were not taxed: i.e. the Nobles and Clergy. Taxes were indirect on poorest part of population. 
-the taille on peasant produce
-the Gabelle - on salt
-various trade tariffs
The basic problem was that in a rich country there was not enough income for the government to do its job.
These taxes increased. It has been calculated that there was a 28% increase in some parts of country in Louis XVI's reign alone. But of course this affected the poor the worst. 

Dependence on loans

The banking system was not able to cope with the fiscal problems. It was the need for King to raise taxes that led to the calling of the Estates General 

Cost of Mid Century Wars

The Seven Years War 1756-63 cost a lot. 
The American Revolution: France had more or less paid for the American War 

Bankruptcy of the State.
By 1780s the government was nearly bankrupt. Half of government income was going on paying debts (annual deficit 126 Million Livres.)(debt was almost 4 Billion Livres). But this was not greater than in UK or Holland. 
The problem was the government could not service the debt. Several ministers did try to put it back on a sound basis. France was not after all a poor country. But their attempts failed. 

E. Events Leading to Calling of Estates General 

Louis XVI had an economic reform plan to tax landed property. It was based on provincial assemblies and allowed no evasion by nobles. [Note that monarchs were the modernizers until the French Revolution only afterwards did they become archaic, and supported by their hitherto enemies, the nobles and the clergy]

Opposition: This was opposed by the noblesse de Robe in the Parlements - they just did not want to be taxed. 

1788 Coup d'etat of Parlements: The Parlement of Paris rejects Kings attempts to force new taxes, so King abolishes Parlements. The King said registration of laws now to be in a plenary court for the whole of France. There was anarchy/revolts throughout France. This forced the calling of an Estates General.  So the E.G. was called as a response to nobles' rejection of a modernization plan. 

The Calling of the Estates General: The representative body of the Three Estates was the Estates-General.  Called in July 1788 (last met 1614), to meet in 1789. This was the crucial step: the end of absolutism  Parlements were recalled and asked on how the Estates General should be conducted (Sept 25 1788), said it should be done in the same way as in 1614.  This disgusted the Third estate, who would only have 1/3 of votes. 

Chain of events: The Third Estate Declares itself National Assembly June 17th 
Tennis Court Oath June 20th 1789 2.The king opposed it but majority of the clergy some nobles joined it. 3.June 27th the King capitulated. 4.National assembly takes name NATIONAL CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY 

4. National Constituent Assembly July 1789 - 1791

1. A Nominal Absolute Monarchy 
2. State Church with Priests paid by State 
3. CREATES A LIBERAL REVOLUTION.