Jennifer Gabra Saturday 1:00-4:00pm Office Room Number: M347 or L209 Classroom: Marram 329 Office Phone: (219)980-6873 or 7128 Office Hours: By appointment only Home Phone: (219)257-8082 Email: jennifergabra@juno.com B400 Forensic Anthropology Course Objectives: This course is designed to provide an in-depth analysis of the human skeleton, beginning with the skull and ending with the distal appendages. After a working knowledge of the entire skeleton is obtained, it will be used to direct the understanding of contemporary forensic anthropological techniques. This understanding includes, but is not limited to, the analysis of sex, age, ancestry (race), trauma, pathology, and taphonomy. A combination of lecture and hands-on laboratories will hone the skills of the students, facilitating their learning process. Course Requirements: 1. Attendance. Attendance will be taken every class period. Unexcused absences and tardiness will influence your overall grade. 2. Quizzes. There are six (6) quizzes assigned throughout the course worth 50 points each. The quizzes will begin promptly at 1:00pm. For most of the quizzes, the first portion will be in a practical format (25 points). There will be 25 stations set up around the room. The student will have exactly one minute to answer the question at each station. Answers will be written on examination sheets provided by the instructor. The second portion will be in written format (25 points), consisting mostly of short answer questions. Minor spelling errors will be ignored, but if there is any question in the professor’s mind as to whether the student understands the information, the answer will be marked wrong. The student will have exactly one hour and a half to complete both portions of the quiz. No make-ups will be offered for these quizzes. If you miss a quiz, an essay format quiz will be assigned. 3. Written Project. There is one (1) written project due at the end of the course worth 50 points. The student can write about any aspect of Forensic Anthropology as long as the topic is focused and is approved by the professor. The papers should be a minimum of 15 pages in length (excluding charts, pictures, etc.), using 10-12 font, and 1” margins on all sides. The page numbers should be displayed clearly on all pages of the paper, excluding the title page and the references cited page(s). There should be a minimum of ten references cited, each recorded in AJPA (American Journal of Physical Anthropology) style. Using the parameters listed above, a maximum number of 350 points can be obtained throughout this course. The number of points the student has received at the end of the course is divided by 350 points, then multiplied by 100 to achieve a percent. The percents fall into the following categories: A = 100% - 95% A- = 94%-90% B+ = 89%-87% B = 86%-84% B- = 83%-80% C+ = 79%-77% C = 76%-74% C- = 73%-70% D+ = 69%-67% D = 66%-64% F = < 64% Note: A great deal of reading will be expected outside of class. Preferably this reading is to be done before the laboratory sessions in order to maximize individual performance. Laboratories will vary in content and duration and will be largely self-directed. Students of Forensic Anthropology should pick one or more individual(s) in the class to be their laboratory partner(s). As a team, they will collaborate and investigate the materials presented each week. Team choices should be made keeping in mind study habits and work schedules, in order to maximize the usefulness of the team both inside and outside of the classroom. Note: I am commuting from South Bend. This means that: ? during the week I will be unavailable for extra help. An “open laboratory” is situated in the back of Marram 329. In this lab, you will be able to study materials presented during regular class time. Hours of operation are listed on the chalkboard at the front of the room. The attendant in the open lab is present to supervise the materials and provide instruction to the Anatomy and Physiology students. Attendants probably know little to nothing about forensic anthropology and should not be pestered for assistance. Plan on attending open lab with your lab partner if you need guidance with the specimens. ? calling either of my offices and leaving a message will be futile. If you need to contact me for any reason, call me at home or email me. ? items left in my mailbox will not be received until moments before the class beings; either use email or wait until class. ? due to erratic weather conditions and the intense variability in the precipitation from location to location in Northern Indiana, I may be forced to delay or cancel class even when weather conditions in your area are sound. I expect that you will choose to attend class only if the weather conditions in your area permit, as well. All absences that are weather related should be reported to me within 24 hours via phone or email. Required Texts: White, Tim D 1999 Human Osteology. New York: Academic Press. 2nd edition. ISBN: 0127466126. Ubelaker, Douglas and Henry Scammell 2000 Bones: A Forensic Detective's Casebook. New York: Harper Collins (Edward Burlingame Books). 0 edition. ISBN: 0871319047. Burns, Karen Ramey 1999 Forensic Anthropology Training Manual. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. 1st edition. ISBN: 0130105767. Optional Texts: Bennett, Kenneth A. 1993 A Field Guide for Human Skeletal Identification. Illinois: Charles C Thomas. 2nd edition. ISBN: 0398058849. Course Outline: Week 1 (August 26th) Anatomical Terminology, Anthropology, Skeletal Biology, Tissues, Bone Microstructure and Histology White: Chapter 1, Chapter 2, and Chapter 3 U&S: Chapter 2 Burns: Introduction, Chapter 1, Chapter 11, and Chapter 12 Week 2 (September 2nd) Bone Macrostructure, Types and Classifications of Bones, Bone Growth and Development White: Chapter 2 Week 3 (September 9th) Growth and Remodeling of Bone, Biomechanics of Bone White: Chapter 2 Week 4 (September 16th) Quiz #1 (covering weeks 1-3) Skull White: Chapter 4 Burns: Chapter 2 Week 5 (September 23rd) Teeth White: Chapter 5 Ramey: Chapter 10 Week 6 (September 30th) Quiz #2 (covering weeks 4-5) The Axial Skeleton (Vertebrae, Ribs, and Sternum) White: Chapter 6 and Chapter 7 Ramey: Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 Week 7 (October 7th) The Upper Extremity (Shoulder, Arm, Forearm, Hand, and Wrist) White: Chapter 8, Chapter 9, and Chapter 10 Ramey: Chapter 3, Chapter 5, and Chapter 6 Week 8 (October 14th) The Lower Extremity (Pelvic Girdle, Thigh, Leg, and Foot) White: Chapter 11, Chapter 12, and Chapter 13 Ramey: Chapter 7, Chapter 8, and Chapter 9 Week 9 (October 21st) Quiz #3 (covering weeks 6-8) Skeletal Variation, Statistical Inference, Stature and Body Size Estimation White: Chapter 16 Ramey: Chapter 12 Week 10 (October 28th) Sexual Dimorphism, Identifying Sex White: Chapter 16 U&S: Chapter 7 Ramey: Chapter 2, Chapter 7, and Chapter 8 Week 11 (November 4th) Quiz #4 (covering weeks 9-10) Age: Subadults vs. Adults White: Chapter 16 U&S: Chapter 7 Ramey: Chapter 7, Chapter 10, and Chapter 12 Week 12 (November 11th) Ancestry White: Chapter 16 U&S: Chapter 7 Ramey: Chapter 2, Chapter 10, and Chapter 12 Week 13 (November 18th) Quiz #5 (covering weeks 11-12) Written Projects Due Trauma and Pathology White: Chapter 17 U&S: Chapter 5, Chapter 6, Chapter 8, Chapter 9, Chapter 11, Chapter 13, Chapter 15, Chapter 16, Chapter 17, Chapter 18, Chapter 19, Chapter 20 Ramey: Chapter 10 and Chapter 12 Week 14 (November 25th) – Thanksgiving Break Week 15 (December 2nd) Taphonomy White: Chapter 18 Week 16 (December 9th) Quiz #6 (covering weeks 13,15) Extra Credit: Extra course credit will be awarded to individuals who bring in skeletal specimens. These specimens will be thereby donated to Indiana University, Northwest and will be used as teaching specimens in future Forensic Anthropology courses. The number of points will be awarded on the rarity of the specimen and the amount of information that can be provided about it. Please refer to the following guidelines when submitting an extra credit project: (1) Only clean bones will be accepted. “Clean” means without dirt, grease, soft tissues, or odor. If skeletal material is found that is not clean, various techniques can be performed to make the material meet specification (see attachment). (2) Do not package, store, or transport finished bones in plastic bags or sealed containers! The residual moisture will cause mold build-up and further destruction of fragile specimens. Put them in paper bags or wrap them in paper and place them in a sturdy box. (3) Do not glue together fractured or fragmented remains and do not glue the teeth into the alveoli (tooth sockets) unless instructed to do so by the professor. (4) Write your name, date, type of animal (genus and species), and its recovery location (county and state) on the bag/box containing the materials or on a separate index card. Note the processing techniques used to clean the specimen (i.e.: warm water and Borax, boiling in bleach, wet brush, dry brush, etc.) and the condition in which you originally found the remains (i.e.: fresh, partially decomposed, fully skeletonized, etc.). (5) Multiple specimens may be brought in as you find them or have time to process them. (6) Where to find bones: ? Roadkills or along roads ? In the woods ? In parks ? Along ponds, streams, and lakes ? In fields ? In attics, basements, and garages ? Donated to you from friends and relatives ? Donated to you by hunters or trappers (7) Bones that we do not want: ? Remains from last nights dinner (8) Bones that we would especially like to see: ? Exotic or uncommon animals (such as those not native to the Midwestern U.S.) ? Birds, fish, reptiles, and amphibians ? Jackalope and bigfoot remains The credit received for the specimen will be commensurate with the time and care put into the project but in no cases will more than ½ a letter grade be added to a final grade for each specimen. Evidence that you have utilized the knowledge learned in this class and in other classes (such as biology) will be appropriately rewarded. Hastily or incompletely prepared specimens will be returned for further processing. It is up to you to figure out what type of remains you have found. Use zoological textbooks to identify the specimen. Record the proper genus and species name on the bag/box or index card. Points will be given for the correct identification of the remains. Points will also be awarded if you can identify any age, sex, trauma, pathology, or taphonomical feature associated with your specimen. You will be required to fill out a donation sheet upon the donation of your specimen. NOTE: Be extremely careful when handling fresh animal remains!!!! There are diseases (SUCH AS???????) that are communicable across species, even when the organism has been deceased for a period of time. ALWAYS wear disposable gloves! If you have any questions or concerns about handling fresh remains, please discuss the matter with your professor. Dried or skeletonized remains pose less of a risk. However, if there are any soft, fatty, oily, or greasy portions left on or in the remains, there is a potential risk of disease transfer. Be very cautious and safe please! General Laboratory Conduct: (1) Students will not be able to eat or drink in the lab. If the professor sees a consumable item in the laboratory, it will be thrown away. (2) Smoking and tobacco products (chewing tobacco, etc.) are not permitted in the laboratory. (3) You will be required to clean your work area after each laboratory period. Failure to keep your laboratory area clean will result in point deductions from your final grade. General Conduct when Studying Human Remains: Throughout the duration of this course, the student will be able to have hands-on exposure to real human skeletons, casts of human skeletons, and real faunal (reptile, bird, animal) bones. The casts can show good detail, however they pale in comparison to the real thing. Whenever possible, the real human material should be used. Keep in mind, however, that you will be tested from both the real human material and the casts. The specimens we use to teach basic skeletal anatomy were purchased from anatomical supply companies. They are very clean and white, having been commercially bleached. You may notice clips, springs, pins, and other hardware used to articulate adjacent elements. Most of these skeletons came from India and were individuals who died in annual floods and monsoons. Their bodies went unclaimed or were sold outright to the anatomical supply companies, who prepared the remains at their facilities in India and then exported them to other countries. Many of the individuals were presumably members of the “Untouchable” caste, comprised of the poorest and lowest-ranking members of society. These people generally have substandard nutrition and health care and provide all of the menial labor for the subcontinent. They are much smaller than the American average, so their bones will probably appear somewhat shorter and more gracile than you would expect your own bones to look like. In the early 1980’s, an embargo halted the shipment of remains out of the Indian facilities, and since that time anatomists have had to obtain skeletons from other sources, such as Russia and China. Unfortunately, many of the skeletons are accompanied by little or no documentary information. Sex, age, and cause of death are not positively known, although some of this information can be deduced from the bones. It is possible that the bones from more than one individual were combined at the factory to form one skeleton, and so you should not be surprised if they do not all match up quite perfectly. In addition, mixing and fragmentation is common when the specimens are used by students. With this information in mind, use some common sense when learning skeletal anatomy from the real bones. When examining the bones of a limb, first check that they are all from the same side, or else confusion could arise later. Are all of the bones from an adult, or do some show signs of incomplete fusion of the epiphyses? Could the bones assigned to one individual actually have come from two different people, such as a male and a female? Take this opportunity to see how variable the human species really is. The non-human skeletal material represents a wide variety of species from a number of continents. Most of the material was prepared by the professor from roadkill or brought in by former students for extra credit. In addition, some of the assemblage was recovered from archaeological sites. Each student should be aware that the specimens they will be handling are extremely fragile, expensive, and, in some cases, rare. Please observe the following rules whenever working with the laboratory materials: (1) Handle the specimens only when your hands are clean. DO NOT bring them into contact with water, soft tissues, or dirty surfaces. (2) DO NOT write on specimens or apply tape, labels, or clay to them. (3) DO NOT strike or tap specimens on the tables or on any other surfaces. Always use a foam pad while working with bones and other fragile specimens. Skulls should be placed on cloth or cork rings. DO NOT place heavy objects on specimens, and do not use them to prop open your books and lab manuals. (4) DO NOT untie the nylon strings that connect bones of the hands, feet, or vertebral column. Unstrung specimens are available for your use on request. (5) Note that the bones you are assigned are part of a single collection. Although each student may work with the other assemblages, elements WILL NOT be exchanged between the assemblages. (6) Treat the upright skeletons gently. While they are designed to move, the attachments are frequently weak from years of use. DO NOT bend or force joints into unnatural positions as they will be damaged. DO NOT snap the spring-held mandibles against their skulls, or else the fragile teeth will become fractured. (7) The microscopes are expensive and fragile. Make sure that proper microscope techniques have been reviewed before proceeding. DO NOT overturn the adjustment knobs. DO NOT attempt to clean the lenses. DO NOT bang the microscopes on the tables. Carry them properly from the cabinet to the workbench and store them properly after each use. (8) Treat the prepared microscope slides carefully. DO NOT drive the microscope objective lenses into the slides. Keep all slides on a paper towel or foam pad in the center of the table. DO NOT put slides in or on open or closed books. (9) Keep your workspace clear of clutter so that specimens are not hidden from view and accidentally damaged or knocked to the floor. (10) NONE OF THE BONES, ARTIFACTS, CASTS, OR MODELS IS TO LEAVE THE LAB FOR ANY REASON!!!!!!! (11) The slide presentations will be composed of potentially sensitive case material. Students are ABSOLUTELY REQUIRED to maintain and adhere to a code of confidentiality. You will be expected to sign a document stating your willingness to uphold this code. Cleaning Guidelines When you have located your extra-credit project, determine if biohazard procedures must be followed. If the remains are fresh, there is a potential for disease transfer and proper biohazard procedures must be used. You must have an up to date vaccination record if you are to handle fresh remains! Be sure to wear latex gloves (rubber gloves will work), some type of protective outer covering on your body (lab coat, plastic bag, raincoat, etc.) and on your face (breathable mask, bandana, etc. and some type of eye protection such as goggles or safety glasses). After your work has concluded, be sure to dispose of your complete outfit in a biohazard bag (supplied by your professor). This bag must be autoclaved to destroy any and all microorganisms that can be transferable to humans. If the remains you have located are found skeletonized, the potential of disease transfer diminishes and the use of strict biohazard procedures are unnecessary. However, caution must still be exercised when processing the remains (you may still want to wear gloves and/or a breathable mask, if the specimen is dusty). All soft tissue, grease, and/or dirt MUST BE removed from the bone before extra credit will be awarded. Remaining soft tissues and/or grease will not only obscure potential evidence of trauma and/or pathology but will also attract pesky insects. Understand the task at hand before beginning. It may take several weeks of processing before the remains are ready to be handed in, especially if the remains are fresh. It will take hard work and dedication. FOR FRESH REMAINS, REMAINS WITH SOFT TISSUE, BONE GREASE, OR FAT RESIDUE: 1. Suit up in proper biohazard attire (see first paragraph of “Cleaning Guidelines”). 2. Locate your specimen. (You may want to check around the vicinity of the specimen for puparia casings and collect them as well.) If you are concerned about infection at this point in the procedure, spray the remains with a considerable amount of Lysol. If the remains are extremely fresh (still twitching, still warm), you should be concerned about fleas and ticks. Always wear gloves and always place the remains in a plastic bag. Spray excessive amounts of Lysol into the bag and close it tightly. Smelly remains, or remains that you will not be able to process immediately can be stored safely in a freezer without harm being done to the bones. DO NOT PLACE THE SPECIMEN IN A FREEZER THAT CONTAINS FOOD OR HAS THE POTENTIAL TO CONTAIN FOOD!!!!!!!! 3. Begin by removing the pelt and muscle tissue with a scalpel or other sharp instrument. ? Use extreme caution when working with sharp instruments. ALL CUTTING SHOULD BE DONE AWAY FROM THE BODY!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Never use excessive amounts of force to dislodge the flesh. Instead, reposition yourself or choose a sharper implement. Excessive force often results in broken implements or accidental slippage, both have the potential to cause injury. You do not have to get the remains completely clean at this point. You will be boiling the remains, which will do most of the work for you. ? Be careful during the removal of the soft tissues. If you hack through the remains, you will inevitably leave “pseudotrauma”. Pseudotrauma can be defined as: 1 trauma that is caused by events other than genuine traumatic events or 2 skeletal markings that can be mistaken for trauma. It is not the intention of the project to cause trauma to the bones. If you do nick a bone during processing, record the event with the information you provide to your professor and learn from it. What does it look like? What instrument did you use to cause the trauma? What pattern did that leave on the bone? How much force were you exerting? 4. If you were working on a real forensic case, a DNA sample would be removed from the remains at this point in the processing. Further processing techniques, listed below, act to degrade DNA. Therefore, it is prudent to take a sample at this point in the procedure. Using sterile gloves, a portion of intact bone would be removed and placed in a sterile biohazard bag. Usually, the twelfth rib, if present, is inventoried, checked for trauma and pathology, then is packaged for DNA analysis. The twelfth rib is selected because it is wholly non-diagnostic. It is important to take a DNA sample from the bony remains even if there is a good deal of soft tissue present because DNA tends to degrade rapidly in soft tissues after death. However, in hard tissues, such as bone, DNA may be preserved for extremely long periods of time. In fact, recent research provides insight into the DNA sequences extracted from the bones of Neandertals, approximately 300,000 years old! 5. Water will be your companion throughout the cleaning process. To being, submerge the remains in water, then add about two inches excess. You may want to keep separate portions of the specimen in separate pots, to aid in later identification. For instance, you may want to separate the hands from the feet, left from the right, etc. The addition of normal, ordinary, everyday household bleach to your water (one cup of bleach per gallon of water) will not only aid in processing, but will also destroy any microorganisms present in the specimen. Place the pot on a flame, bring to a boil, then simmer. There are a couple things to keep in mind at this point: ? Do not over boil your specimen, especially if it is fragile. Boiling will act to break down the tissues, all of the tissues, including bone! Boiling for extended periods of time will destroy your specimen. Once the water is initially brought to a boil, you can reduce the heat, bringing the water to a slow simmer. This is the best way to keep the temperature of the water high while preserving the integrity of your specimen. ? Adding large quantities of bleach will also destroy your specimen, making it extremely friable (brittle). One cup of bleach per gallon of water is sufficient for destroying microorganisms, as well as breaking down those stubborn soft tissues. ? Per OSHA guidelines, all soft tissues and fatty substances are considered biohazardous until they are boiled at 100°C (212°F) for 20 minutes in a bleach solution. ? All surfaces, tools, bags, and containers that have come into contact with potentially biohazardous materials (including your own skin and clothing) are considered biohazardous until they are cleaned with a diluted bleach solution (1 cup of bleach to 1 gallon of water – must be prepared fresh every 24 hours) or until autoclaved. Note: If your remains are extremely fresh, you may want to add an extra step before you begin boiling. Keep in mind that you will have to continue following biohazard procedures until the specimen has been boiled at 100°C (212°F) for 20 minutes in a bleach solution. Obtain a container (with a lid) large enough to hold your remains. Add enough water to cover the specimen plus two extra inches above the specimen. Add 1/2 cup of normal household Borax for each gallon of water, stir thoroughly. Place your specimen into the container and place lid on container. Keep the temperature of the water approximately 75-80°C (167-176°F). Your specimen can remain in this state for an entire day however, they should be checked frequently to ensure there is no damage being done to the specimen. The enzyme action of the Borax will act to breakdown the stubborn soft tissues but will not destroy potentially harmful microorganisms. Consequently, proper attire must still be used when handling the specimen. In this procedure, the water should not be brought to a boil. Enzymes act more efficiently at intermediate temperatures, not at temperature extremes such as boiling or freezing. (Just think of your own body. Enzymes work best when your temperature is stable at 98.6°F. Higher temperatures will act to denature your enzymes, making fevers potentially harmful.) After the Borax step, you may begin step #5. 6. You may stop simmering at any point, but 6-8 hours (depending on the size of your specimen) is suggested to diminish the chance of specimen destruction. Be careful when dumping the water out of the container. Remember, steam can burn you just as easily as water can. Be sure to wear some type of protection on your face and hands to avoid being burned! You may want to dump the water through a strainer, to ensure that no small bones/teeth are lost down the drain. After the water has been poured off the specimen, thoroughly rinse them with warm running tap water. You must remove all of the bleach, for it will continue to degrade your specimen it not removed completely. (Adding fresh water and a small amount of soap to the remains and bringing them to a boil again will also remove the bleach.) Note: After your first simmer, you should attempt to remove the teeth from the alveoli (sockets). Repeated boiling and cooling will cause the extremely friable teeth to fracture. There should be little soft tissue on the exterior surface of the teeth (once the periodontal ligament is destroyed), which usually happens during the first boil. The soft tissues on the interior of the teeth (pulp cavities) are usually of no consequence, due to their resilient casing of dentin and enamel. 7. Use your tools to remove excess soft tissue. These tools can either be the scalpel or other sharp implement used in step #3 or, if you are getting close to the bone, less destructive instruments (remember pseudotrauma!) such as old toothbrushes, popsicle sticks, wooden skewers, or chopsticks. Note: Keep an eye on the edges of the bones. A type of damage, fittingly entitled “boiling damage” (it’s sheer genius, isn’t it?), occurs as bones rub against the bottom of the pot during boiling. If you notice the edges of your specimen melting away, with or without evidence of flaking or exposure of trabecular bone, boiling damage is occurring to your specimen. Remove it from the pot. You may want to suspend bones susceptible to boiling damage (such as juvenile remains) in mesh or wire strainers during the boiling process. Tea bag holders/strainers and colanders are suitable for this purpose. 8. You may want to subject your specimen to additional boils/simmers to further reduce the amount of soft tissue and/or bone grease. You may boil/simmer as many times as you wish, however DO NOT ADD BLEACH AFTER YOUR INITIAL BOIL! You have already sterilized the remains and any additional bleach will only act to degrade your specimen. Note: You do not have to boil the specimen until the bones/teeth are white. This difficult to impossible task is unnecessary, pointless, and unwarranted. As long as the bones are free from soft tissues and grease they are, from the perspective of the analyst, in an ideal condition. 9. You will probably want to subject your remains to one or two additional boils after the bones are devoid of soft tissues in order to release the fat held within the marrow (medullary) cavities. If you are dealing with a larger specimen, you may want to drill holes into the ends of the long bones in order to expedite the fat removal. A thin wire (such as an unraveled coat hanger) may be inserted into the hole in order to break up the marrow contained within the cavity. 10. After the completion of a days work, use the diluted bleach solution (1 cup of bleach to 1 gallon of water – must be prepared fresh every 24 hours) to clean all surfaces, pots, utensils, and processing surfaces. CHEMICAL DEGREASING: 1. On occasion, there is a point of diminishing returns reached when removing the fats and soft tissues from skeletal remains. If not for chemical degreasing techniques, some skeletal remains would be mechanically destroyed by boiling/simmering before the fats were removed from them. More up-scale laboratories use special substances to leach the fats from their remains (xyol solutions = 60% alcohol + 40% xylenes). You may use 2-3 cups of ammonia per gallon of water and soak the remains at room temperature for a period of days or weeks. Remember to check your remains frequently to ensure that they are intact. FOR SKELETONIZED REMAINS: If you have located your specimen and it is devoid of soft tissues, you may simply use a soft bristled toothbrush (preferably one you will not use again) and warm (not hot) running tap water to process your remains: 1. Begin by using a wooden implement (popsicle stick, wooden skewer, or chopstick) to remove the larger clumps of dirt and other debris from the bones. 2. After you have removed the surface residue, place the toothbrush under the warm running tap water. Tap the brush several times on the side of the sink to remove excess moisture. DO NOT hold the bones underneath the stream of water as you will be adding to the degradative process. The water molecules will accelerate the breakdown of the collagen/mineral bonds and lead to more rapid disintegration of the specimen. In addition, a soaking wet bone will inevitably crack upon rapid drying. In fact, any bone that undergoes a rapid temperature differential will tend to warp, fracture, or break. The best way to dry wet bone is to let them dry naturally and slowly on a piece of newspaper or on a screen. Obviously, drying specimens on a screen has an advantage over paper drying because it allows both sides of the specimen to dry at once, whereas newspaper will pool the moisture at the bottom surfaces. DO NOT place the wet bones in direct sunlight or in an area with a draft. Donation Form I, ______________________________________________ donate the following specimen (__________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________) to Indiana University, Northwest on this the _____________ day of _________________ in the year _______________________. I understand that upon donating this specimen, it becomes the property of Indiana University, Northwest. I understand that Indiana University, Northwest will use this specimen for educational and teaching purposes only. __________________________________________ _____________________ Student Signature Date __________________________________________ _____________________ Professor Signature Date Confidentiality Form Forensic Anthropology is primarily used in the medical-legal context. Throughout the duration of this class, you may be observing, examining, or working with potentially sensitive remains. “Sensitive” in this context refers to the following: 1. Unsolved cases or cases that have yet to be adjudicated 2. Unidentified remains or recently identified remains where the emotions of family members may be involved 3. Remains from Native American sites In each of these contexts, confidentiality is of the utmost concern. Defendant’s lives may be hanging in the balance of a fair trial. Families may be awaiting the identification of skeletal remains or families may have recently been made aware that their loved one is deceased. Finally, the Native American culture upholds dignified and respectful treatment of the remains of their ancestors. Therefore, you must consciously consider the legal, political, social, and interpersonal ramifications of your words and actions at all times. By signing this form, I _____________________________________________ commit to the following set of rules: 1. I will not reveal the details of the cases or sites presented in class (B400, Forensic Anthropology, Indiana University, Northwest, Fall 2000) to any unauthorized individuals. 2. I will not discuss the materials presented in class (ibid.) with anyone from the media. Direct all questions to your professor. 3. I will not photograph the remains and materials presented in class (ibid.). 4. I will not remove any of the materials from the classroom in which they were presented. Failure to comply with these rules will result in your immediate expulsion from class and possible legal action. __________________________________________ _____________________ Student Signature Date __________________________________________ _____________________ Professor Signature Date Laboratory 1 Anatomical Terminology, Bone Macro- and Microstructure, and Bone Biomechanics Note: The laboratories are provided in order to facilitate self-guided research into the topics discussed in lecture. They are wrought with intricate terminology, observations, and cool facts. Please attempt to discern this material on your own. The professor will not hand feed you answers in lab. (If you have a question, consult your textbooks and lab partner before asking the professor.) This is the only way you will learn and retain the information! Items that are asterisked (*) should be learned for informational and discussion purposes only. You will not be tested on asterisked items. TERMINOLOGY: Have a working knowledge of the following terms, where they are located (if applicable), and their significance: Anatomical Terminology: Know all of the terms listed on page 17 in Burns and 27-31 in White. In Burns, you may find it useful to learn pages 20-22. These are terms that will continually arise throughout the semester. In White, end with 3.2.3 Hands and Feet (page 31). You will not be tested on 3.3 Motions of the body. You may find it useful to learn 3.4 General Bone Features - pages 32-35 however, you will not be tested on those terms either. Joints: Synovial (Diarthrosis) Ball and socket (Spheroidal) Hinge Sellar (Saddle) Planar Cartilaginous (Synchondrosis) Synchondrosis Symphysis Fibrous Synarthrosis (Suture) Gomphosis Syndesmosis Synostosis Tissue types: Epithelial Muscle Nervous Connective Connective tissue types: Mesenchyme [embryological] Bone Cartilage Tendons [muscle to bone] Ligaments [bone to bone] Blood Adipose [fat] Connective tissue cells: Suffix Description -blast producing cell -cyte mature cell -clast remover cell Prefix Description fibro- fiber chondro- cartilage osteo- bone odonto- tooth dentin amelo- tooth enamel cemento- tooth cementum Bone Macrostructure: Diaphysis (Shaft) Epiphysis Metaphysis Nutrient foramen Medullary cavity (Marrow cavity) Types of bone: Woven bone (Immature bone, Fibrous bone, Primary cancellous bone) Cortical bone (Compact bone) Subchondral bone Cancellous bone (Spongy bone, Trabecular bone) Trabeculae Diploë Dentin Enamel Cementum The softer side of bone: Periosteum Fibrous layer [superficial] Osteogenic layer [deep] Perichondrium Sharpey’s fibers Endosteum Osteogenic layer Subperiosteal blood vessels Yellow marrow [fat] Red marrow [RBC] Bone growth: Endochondral bone growth [Hyaline cartilage model] Intramembranous bone growth (Membranous bone growth, Dermal bone growth) Cartilaginous growth plate (Growth plate, Epiphyseal plate) Epiphyseal line Ossification Primary and secondary ossification centers Primary and secondary osteons Calcified cartilage Articular cartilage Deposition Apposition Resorption Remodeling Wolff’s law Bone Microstructure: Haversian system (Osteon) Central canal Lamellae (Concentric lamellae, Haversian lamellae) Interstitial lamellae Canaliculi Lacunae Osteocytes Osteoid (Collagen) Hydroxyapatite Ground substance Cement line Lamellar bone Haversian canal (Central canal) Volkmann’s canal (Transverse canal) Howship’s lacunas Bone loading: Compression Tension Bending Shear Torsion Biomechanics: Stress Strain Elastic deformation Yield point Plastic deformation Failure Ductile Brittle Stiffness Anisotropy Useful information: Type of bone Woven Cancellous Cortical Subchondral Appearance/Texture - Formed at fx sites - Felt-like, bony spicules - Porous, course - Forms center of bone - Honeycomb of tiny, bony struts - Porous, course - Forms outer portion of bone - Solid, dense - Found beneath articular cartilage - Intermediate density between cortical and cancellous - Smooth, shiny Osteons? No No Yes No % mineral Poor mineralization 65% 65% 65% Collagen fiber orientation Random Single direction within lamellae Single direction within lamellae Single direction within lamellae Matrix orientation Random Organized lamellae Organized lamellae Organized lamellae OBSERVE THE FOLLOWING, USING SPECIMENS OR YOUR NOTES/TEXTBOOKS: ? How many bones does the typical newborn have? How many bones does the typical adult have? ? What do the proportions of compact and trabecular bone have to do with the bone’s “job”? ? Why do these proportions vary within one bone? ? Why do these proportions vary between bones? ? How do the compact, trabecular, and subchondral bone differ when viewed under a dissecting microscope? ? Why is this significant? (i.e.: How is it related to their structure, function, and location?) ? How does burning effect the chemical composition of the bone? ? What is the result? (i.e.: How does the bone physically feel after it has been burned?) ? How does immersion in weak acid effect the chemical composition of the bone? ? What is the result? (i.e.: How does the bone physically appear after it has been immersed?) ? What is the chemical composition of bone? ? What type of bone is diploë? Where is it found? ? Describe the process by which bone is formed for both endochondral and intramembranous growth, beginning with mesenchyme. Which bones of the body undergo intramembranous growth? ? Using your understanding of bone growth, describe how you could tell the age of an individual by microscopically examining the osteons contained within the bone. What are some potential problems/inaccuracies that you could encounter using this method? ? Describe the difference between ossification and calcification. ? How do compact and cancellous bone differ in their reactions to bone loading? ? Give examples of the following descriptive groups: ? Long bones ? Short bones ? Flat bones ? Irregular bones ? What is the difference between the terms synchondrosis and synchondroses? DID YOU KNOW….? ? Bones obtained from humans can be easily distinguished from bones of non-humans by inspecting the size and morphology of the bones. For instance, horses tend to be larger and support more bodily mass than humans. Therefore, one would expect the bones of a horse to be longer and more robust than the bones of a human being. The opposite can be said for a mouse. Additionally, the cortex (outer layer) of bone is almost always thicker in non-human mammals and it has a smooth, dense texture to it. When dropped on a table, a non-human bone will make a higher pitched sound than a human bone. In some instances, it may be difficult to distinguish between human and non-human, such is the case when comparing human and bear skeletal remains. Furthermore, in fragmentary specimens, a comparison of size and morphology may not be feasible. Luckily, human bone and non-human bone differs on a microscopic level. Thin sections of the bone may be taken and viewed under a microscope. Differences in the size, shape, and arrangement of the osteons can be used to distinguish human from non-human specimens. Non-humans tend to display a “plexiform” pattern, characterized by osteons aligned in horizontal rows. Therefore, if the section of bone presents a plexiform pattern, it can be used as a positive indication of a non-human mammal. However, random osteon patterning can be found in both human as well as non-human specimens, and therefore, it cannot be used for positive identification. Laboratory 2 Skull The following five weeks will constitute the basis of your human skeletal anatomy examination. You will be required to know the following for each bone in the body: ? Names ? Correct singular and plural forms of the name ? Exact location ? Anatomical position ? Articulations ? Major structural features ? Right versus left (except for hands and feet) ? Sub-adult versus adult ? Cross-sectional anatomy ? Identification from fragmented or incomplete specimens ? Human versus non-human TERMINOLOGY: General skull: Skull = ? Cranium (head without mandible) ? Calvarium (head without face) ? Mandible (jaw) ? Vault (braincase) ? Face ? Base (inferior skull) Cranium = ? Calvarium x Mandible ? Vault ? Face ? Base Calvarium = x Mandible ? Vault x Face ? Base Calotte = x Mandible ? Vault x Face x Base Ectocranial Endocranial Bones of the skull: Frontal Parietal Occipital Temporal Sphenoid Ethmoid Zygomatic (Malar) Maxilla Nasal Lacrimal Vomer Inferior nasal concha Palatine Mandible Hyoid Sutures: Frontal Metopic Coronal Sagittal Lambdoid Squamous Wormian bones (Sutural bones, Ossicles) Frontal: Frontal eminence Superior temporal line Inferior temporal line Supercilliary arches (Brows) Supraorbital notch or foramen Frontal crest Parietal: Parietal eminence Superior temporal line Inferior temporal line Impressions of (middle meningeal) blood vessels Arachnoid fovea (Arachnoid pits, Granular fovea, Pacchionian depressions) Temporal: External auditory meatus Internal auditory meatus Zygomatic process Supramastoid crest Mastoid process Diagastric groove (Mastoid groove) Articular eminence Mandibular fossa (Glenoid fossa) Styloid process Jugular fossa Carotid canal Auditory ossicles Malleus Incus Stapes Occipital: Foramen magnum External occipital protuberance Superior nuchal line Inferior nuchal line Occipital condyle Hypoglossal canal Internal occipital protuberance Maxilla: Zygomatic process Alveolar process Alveoli Infraorbital foramen Anterior nasal spine Incisive foramen Nasal aperture Mandible: Body (Corpus, Horizontal ramus) Ascending ramus (Vertical ramus) Mental Eminence Mandibular symphysis Mental foramen Mandibular condyle Condylar neck Coronoid process Gonial angle Mandibular foramen Alveoli Hyoid: Body Greater horns (Greater cornua) Lesser horns (Lesser cornua) Sphenoid: Greater wings* Lesser wings* Pterygoid process* Optic canal* Sella turcica* Lateral pterygoid plate* Medial pterygoid plate* Ethmoid: Lateral masses* Cribiform plate* Crista galli* Superior nasal conchae* Inferior nasal conchae* Palatine: Horizontal plate* Perpendicular plate* Vomer: Alae (Wings) * Perpendicular plate (Lamina) * Fontanelles: Anterior (Frontal) * Posterior (Occipital) * Sphenoidal* Mastoid* Laryngeal Cartilages: Thyroid cartilage* Cricoid cartilage* Arytenoid cartilage* Tracheal cartilage* OBSERVE THE FOLLOWING, USING SPECIMENS OR YOUR NOTES/TEXTBOOKS: ? You have probably seen a shark mandible at some point in your life. You may have been able to touch it, to feel it’s hardened presence. You may have noticed it’s jagged teeth, aligned in countless rows. You may have stuck your arm into the jaw and pretended that you were being consumed, laughing the whole time with a nervous laughter. Sharks constitute a class known as Chondrichthes or “cartilaginous fishes”. If it is true that the shark’s body is made of cartilage, then how could the mandible ever survive? How would you reconcile this seemingly contradictory observation? There is one component of the shark’s body that is bone. What is it? ? What two bones compose the zygomatic arch? ? What two bones compose the hard palate? ? What two bones compose the bony nasal septum? ? What is the difference between the terms calvaria and calvarium? ? Which bones of the skull grow intramembranously? Which grow cartilagenously? DID YOU KNOW….? ? Growth centers for the cranial bones are marked by bony protrusions known as bosses or eminencies. ? In some animals (such as deer, rodents, coyote, and cat), the mandible is composed of two separate halves. Each half of the mandible is called a hemi-mandible. However, in some animals (such as baboons, humans, horses, and pigs), the mandible is fused. Why the discrepancy? Laboratory 3 Teeth TERMINOLOGY: Dietary characterizations: Herbivore Frugivore Carnivore Omnivore Insectivore General tooth terms: Arcade (Dental arcade) Quadrant Dental formula Agenesis Impaction Tooth features: Enamel Dentin (Dentine) Crown Cusps Cone [upper] * Conid [lower] * Fissures Wear facets Mammelon Cingulum Dentinoenamel junction (DEJ) * Cervix (Neck, Cementoenamel junction (CEJ)) Pulp chamber Pulp Root canal Root Apex Cementum Alveolus (Socket) Periodontal ligament Crypt Tooth bud (Germ) Types of teeth: Maxillary Mandibular Deciduous (Baby teeth, Milk teeth) Permanent (Adult teeth) Incisor Central Lateral Canine (Cuspids, Eye teeth) Premolar (Bicuspids) Third (First) Fourth (Second) Molar First Second Third (Wisdom teeth) Supernumerary teeth Diastema Tooth organization: Homodont Heterodont Thecodont Terms of Direction: Be sure to review the terms of direction that pertain to the teeth! Useful information: Substance Created by Process known as % mineral Can heal if damaged Enamel ameloblasts amelogenesis 99% No/Acellular Dentin odontoblasts odontogenesis 75% Slightly/Cellular around periphery Cement cementoblasts cementogenesis 65% Yes OBSERVE THE FOLLOWING, USING SPECIMENS OR YOUR NOTES/TEXTBOOKS: ? What is a dental formula? How do anthropologists and dentist differ in their dental notations? ? How many teeth does the typical adult human have? What is the dental formula? ? How many teeth does the typical infant human have? What is the dental formula? ? What are two terms used to describe the most posterior deciduous teeth? Why the discrepancy? ? Which teeth do infants lack? ? Which tooth types constitute the common term “cheek teeth”? ? Observe the difference between human teeth and non-human teeth. How do teeth reflect the diets of the organism? ? How is the shape of the tooth important in the function of the tooth? (i.e.: Examine the shape of an incisor. How is the shape important to the function of the incisor?) How is the placement important to the function? Give an explanation for each of the tooth types. ? Some animals (such as rodents, deer, cows, and horses) do not have canines or have vestigial canines. Why? ? What are carnassials (sectorial teeth)? (Hint: They are found in carnivores, but not omnivores.) DID YOU KNOW….? ? Tusks of elephants, mammoths, and walruses are enlarged upper second incisors made of dentin, not enamel. Growth occurs in incremental layers, producing growth rings similar to the growth rings found in trees. ? Tusks of pigs are modified canines that can become curled during the life of the animal. (WHAT ARE THEY MADE OF?) ? Filter-feeding whales, such as the gray whale, the humpback whale, and the blue whale, have a specialized feeding adaptation known as baleen (sometimes mistakenly called whalebone). Baleen is a long, jaw-like structure found immediately posterior to the oral aperture. The uppermost portion of baleen is composed of a hard, yet flexible material known as keratin. The lower region of the baleen is made up of fine, hair-like projections that filter the plankton from the water as it enters the whale’s mouth. ? Keratin is a hardened, frequently pigmented protein that is the main component of hair, fur, and the upper layer of the epidermis of the skin. Horns, hooves, claws, nails, beaks, bills, scales, scutes (thin plates that cover a turtle’s carapace), and feathers are each formed from keratin. In many cases, the keratin structure covers a deeper core of bone (such as the bony projection found within the horn). Keratin is more pliable than bone, yet it still retains quite durable characteristics. Early human beings realized the importance of this dichotomy and used it to fashion several items including combs, fans, and corsets. ? Some animals (such as beavers) possess teeth (particularly incisors) that continually grow, an adaptation to continual wear produced by gnawing. ? If you have ever seen a shark’s mandible, you may have noticed the fact that there are many rows of teeth present, a condition known as polyphyodonty. The same is true in some snakes. Most of the other members of the animal kingdom have only one row of teeth. Why this discrepancy? Why would sharks and snakes need more than one row of teeth? ? Birds and turtles do not have any teeth (edentulous), with the exception of the egg tooth. The egg tooth is present at emergence and is used to break through the egg when the young is ready to leave. Instead of teeth, birds and turtles have beaks that they use to grasp objects. A beak is a bony jaw-like appendage that is covered in keratin. ? Some fishes have teeth present in the roof of their mouths, known as palatine teeth. These teeth are present not to pierce and chew, but instead act to sufficiently grasp and tear at prey. ? Some snakes tend to have teeth that curve backward in their mouths. Why is this a beneficial adaptation? ? Venomous snakes are equipped with specialized hollow teeth (fangs) that transmit poison to the prey. Laboratory 4 Axial Skeleton TERMINOLOGY: Vertebrae – General anatomy: Centrum (Body) Neural arch (Vertebral arch) Vertebral foramen (Vertebral canal) Pedicle Lamina Transverse process (Costal process) Superior and Inferior Zygapophyses (Superior articular facet, Inferior articular facet) Spinous process (Neural spine) Intervertebral foramen* Vertebrae – Specific anatomy: Lateral mass Dens (Odontoid process, Epistropheus) Transverse foramen Vertebra prominens Costal articular facets Costal articular demi-facets Mammilary process* Spinal curvatures: Cervical lordosis* Thoracic kyphosis* Lumbar lordosis* Sacral kyphosis* Scoliosis* Kyphoscoliosis* Spinal column: Cervical (C1-C7) Atlas Axis Thoracic (T1-T12) Lumbar (L1-L5) Sacral (S1-S5) Coccyx (C1-C?) Sacrum: 5 elements [sometimes 4] Base [superior surface of S1] Promontory Superior articular processes (Superior zygapophyses) Alae (Lateral masses) Auricular surface Anterior sacral foramina Posterior sacral foramina Transverse lines Sacral canal (Sacral vertebral foramina) Median sacral crest Sacral hiatus Sacral horns Apex Coccyx: C1 Centrum Cornua (Horns) Transverse processes Sternum: Manubrium Supersternal notch (Jugular notch) Clavicular notches (Clavicular facets) Costal notches [for Ribs 1 and 2] Body (Corpus sterni, Gladiolus) Sternarbrae Horizontal lines of fusion* Costal notches Xiphoid process Costal notch [Rib 7] Sternal angle Sternal foramen Ribs: Head Articular facet or Articular demifacet Neck Tubercle Articular facet Angle Shaft (Body) Cranial edge (Superior edge) Caudal edge (Inferior edge) Costal groove Sternal end Costal cartilage Scalene tubercle [Rib 1, cranial surface]* Subclavian depressions [Rib 2, cranial surface]* Tubercle for serratus anterior muscle [Rib 2, cranial surface]* Anatomical rib terminology: True ribs (Vertebrosternal) False ribs (Vertebrochondral) Floating ribs (Vertebral) OBSERVE THE FOLLOWING, USING SPECIMENS OR YOUR NOTES/TEXTBOOKS: ? Does the atlas have a centrum? Does the axis? ? How many vertebrae constitute the normal human spinal column? DID YOU KNOW….? ? In turtles, the vertebrae are fused with the carapace (the uppermost portion of the shell). This makes it impossible for the turtle to leave the shell. ? Snakes have distinct ball-and-socket shaped vertebrae. Why would this be advantageous? ? Sometimes, vestigial ribs may develop in the cervical (cervical ribs) or lumbar (lumbar ribs) regions. ? There are numerous deviations from the ordinary vertebral pattern including, but not limited to: extra vertebra(e), fused vertebra(e), missing vertebra(e), and caudal or cranial shifting of the vertebra(e). Laboratory 5 Upper Extremity TERMINOLOGY: Pectoral girdle = scapulae and clavicles Clavicle: Sternal end (Medial end) Shaft Conoid tubercle Acromial end (Lateral end) Articular facet* Scapula: Body Borders Vertebral border (Medial border) Axillary border (Lateral border) Cranial border (Superior border) Angles Medial angle Inferior angle Superior angle Fossae Supraspinous fossa Infraspinous fossa Subscapular fossa Scapular notch (Suprascapular notch) or Scapular foramen (Suprascapular foramen) Spine Acromion process Coracoid process Neck Glenoid fossa (Glenoid cavity) Humerus: Head Anatomical neck – where joint capsule attaches Surgical neck – where bone usually fractures Greater tubercle (Greater tuberosity) Lesser tubercle (Lesser tuberosity) Intertubercular groove (Bicipital groove) Shaft Deltoid tuberosity Nutrient foramen Lateral epicondyle Medial epicondyle Trochlea Capitulum Coronoid fossa Radial fossa Olecranon fossa Septal foramen (Septal aperture) Ulnar groove* Radius: Head Neck Radial tuberosity (Bicipital tuberosity) Shaft Interosseous crest (Interosseous margin)* Nutrient foramen Ulnar notch Styloid process Carpal articular surface (Distal articular surface) Medial facet [for lunate]* Lateral facet [for scaphoid]* Dorsal tubercle (Lister’s tubercle)* Extensor tendon grooves* Ulna: Olecranon process Trochlear notch (Semilunar notch) Trochlear ridge (Guiding ridge) Coronoid process Ulnar tuberosity (Brachial tuberosity) Radial notch Supinator crest* Shaft Interosseous crest (Interosseous margin)* Nutrient foramen Neck Head Fovea Circumferential articular surface (Radial articular surface) Styloid process Carpals: Proximal row Scaphoid (Navicular) Radial articular surface* Tubercle* Lunate Triquetral (Triangular) Pisiform Triangular articular facet (Triangular articular surface)* Distal row Trapezium (Greater multangular) Tubercle* Trapezoid (Lesser multangular) Capitate Head* Base* Hamate Hamulus (Hook)* “Some Lovers Try Positions That They Cannot Handle” Metacarpals (1-5): Pollux Base Head Shaft Manual Phalanges: Base Head Shaft Rows Proximal [5] Middle [4] Distal [5] Sesamoids: 2 at head of metacarpal 1 1 at head of metacarpal 2 OBSERVE THE FOLLOWING, USING SPECIMENS OR YOUR NOTES/TEXTBOOKS: ? What is the function of the sesamoids? ? Which bone completes epiphyseal fusion last in the human body? ? Which bone of the postcranial skeletal develops intramembraneously? DID YOU KNOW…? ? Bird long bones are thinner in cross section than those of mammals. This special adaptation allows the bird to have a light, yet supportive structure, an important attribute for flight. Since there is less oxygen at higher altitudes, some birds have increased the surface area of their lungs by having lung tissue to invade the interior of their long bones via tiny foramina (pneumatic foramina). (CHECK ON THIS!) ? With the exception of cats, clavicles are absent from the other mammals. ? It is not uncommon to find certain mammals that have fused radii and ulnae. In these mammals, rotation of the arm is not necessary, therefore there is no need to create and maintain two separate arm bones. Laboratory 6 Lower Extremity TERMINOLOGY: (Note: coxa, plural = coxae. Do not use the term “os coxa” or “os coxae” (given in White) as it is cumbersome and incorrect. Innominate, meaning “having no name”, should not be used either because it does have a name – coxa(e). Coxa: Acetabulum Lunate Surface* Acetabular notch (Acetabular fossa) Obturator foramen Obturator groove* Ilium Body Iliac blade (Ala) Iliac crest Iliac fossa Gluteal muscles Iliac spines* Anterior superior iliac spine* Anterior inferior iliac spine* Posterior superior iliac spine* Posterior inferior iliac spine* Greater sciatic notch Auricular surface Iliac tuberosity Arcuate line Ischium Body Iscial spine Lesser sciatic notch Ischial tuberosity Ramus Pubis Body Pubic symphysis Pubic tubercle Iliopubic ramus (Superior ramus) Ischiopubic ramus (Inferior ramus) Femur: Head Fovea capitis Neck Greater torchanter Lesser trochanter Intertrochanteric line [anterior]* Intertrochanteric crest [posterior]* Trochanteric fossa Gluteal tuberosity (Gluteal line) Shaft Linea aspera Nutrient foramen Popliteal surface Medial supracondylar ridge* Adductor tubercle* Lateral supracondylar ridge* Medial condyle Lateral condyle Medial epicondyle Lateral epicondyle Patellar surface Intercondylar fossa (Intercondylar notch) Patella: Body Base [superior] Apex [inferior] Medial articular facet Lateral articular facet Tibia: Tibial plateau Medial condyle Lateral condyle Intercondylar eminence Medial intercondylar tubercle* Lateral intercondylar tubercle* Superior fibular articular facet Tibial tuberosity Shaft Anterior crest (Anterior margin) Interosseous crest (Interosseous margin)* Surfaces Posterior surface Medial surface Lateral surface (Interosseous surface) Nutrient foramen Medial malleolus Malleolar groove [posterior] Fibular notch Inferior fibular articular facet* Talar articular surface* Fibula: Head Styloid process (Apex) Tibial articular facet Shaft Interosseous crest (Interosseous margin)* Nutrient foramen Lateral malleolus Talar articular facet (Malleolar articular facet) Malleolar fossa Tarsals: Talus (Astragalus) Head* Navicular articular surface* Neck* Body* Trochlea* Medial malleolar surface* Lateral malleolar surface* Calcaneal surfaces* Sulcus tali (Talar sulcus) * Calcaneus Body* Tuberosity* Sustentaculum (Sustentaculum tali) * Talar surfaces* Cuboid articular surface* Cuboid [Metatarsals 4 & 5] Calcaneal articular surface* Navicular Talar articular surface* Medial cuneiform (First cuneiform) [largest cuneiform, metatarsal 1] Intermediate cuneiform (Second cuneiform) [smallest cuneiform, metatarsal 2] Lateral cuneiform (Third cuneiform) [metatarsal 3] Metatarsals (1-5): Hallux Base Shaft Head Pedal Phalanges: Base Shaft Head Rows Proximal Middle Distal Sesamoids: 2 at head of metatarsal 1 DID YOU KNOW…? ? It is not uncommon to find certain mammals that have fused tibiae and fibulae. In these mammals, rotation of the leg is not necessary, therefore there is no need to create and maintain two separate bones. ? The calcaneus of most other mammals is placed much higher on the leg and is therefore more gracile than the calcaneus found in human beings, which repeatedly performs the heel strike. Furthermore, in some mammals (such as deer) only a few toes make contact with the ground. Laboratory 7 Bone Measurement TERMINOLOGY: Variation: Systematic Non-systematic (Idiosyncratic) Discrete (Non-metric, Discontinuous) Metric (Continuous) Statistical Terminology: General Population Sample Significance p value Confidence Distribution Mean Median Mode Range Standard deviation (1SD, 2SD, and 3SD) Types of error Sampling error True value Measurement error Precision Accuracy Intraobserver error Interobserver error Tests Chi-squared [# of observations for two samples statistically significant] Student’s t [means of two samples statistically significant, p<0.05] ANOVA (Analysis of variance, F-test) [dep. affected by ind.] Dependent variable [usually continuous] Independent variable [usually discrete] ANCOVA (Analysis of covariance) [dep. affected by ind.] Dependent variable [usually continuous] Independent variable [discrete and continuous] Correlation (Pearson’s product-moment correlation) [as one changes does other] r value [ranges from +1 to –1] Regression [predict dep. from ind.] Scatterplot Best fit line (Regression line) Multiple regression [predict dep. from many ind.] Discriminant analysis [sort into discrete groups using group specific equations] Seriation [comparison of raw bone lengths across populations] Tools: Osteometric board Sliding calipers Spreading calipers Measuring tape Coordinate caliper (Simometer) [subtenses and fractions of skull]* Radiometer [radial measurements from a central axis of skull]* Cranial landmarks: Bregma Lambda Glabella Opisthocranion Euryon Prosthion Nasion Basion OBSERVE THE FOLLOWING, USING SPECIMENS OR YOUR NOTES/TEXTBOOKS: ? Be able to use the FORDISC computer program to estimate stature. ? Understand the rudiments of statistical analysis of osteological data and the purposes of the major techniques. ? What are some features that you must know before you plug the measurements into the stature equations? What happens if you are incorrect? (i.e.: Measure a bone and plug it into the “White male” equation then the “Black male” equation. What happened to the stature?) ? What is an error range? How large should it be? ? Compare the measurements of several bones. Which bones are most accurate? How would you know this? What does this imply about fragmentary remains? ? Compare the stature estimates obtained from the stature equations and FORDISC for one set of remains. How well do they relate? ? Understand the problems that a forensic anthropologist could run into when estimating stature (there are eleven). ? What are the benefits of using ANOVA and ANCOVA tests over Chi-squared and Student’s t tests? ? What happens near the extremes of a regression line? ? Why is seriation a worthwhile technique in some populations? What are the drawbacks? ? What is the difference between being accurate and precise? What is bias? DID YOU KNOW…? ? Your stature changes during the course of a day. Throughout the day, activities tend to compress your spinal column, particularly your intervertebral disks. Therefore, you are at your maximum height upon waking. ? Your stature changes over your lifetime. Upon reaching your maximum height between the ages of 18-25, your skeleton beings to degrade, especially your spinal column. This brings about a reduction in stature, commonly referred to as “shrinking” in old age. ? Men tend to overestimate their height on their driver’s license, while females tend to underestimate their weight (my license says I weigh 50 lbs!). Laboratory 8 Sex In this lab, you will need to be able to apply both metric and discrete trait analyses in order to determine the sex of skeletal remains. TERMINOLOGY: General Primary sex characteristics Secondary sex characteristics Sexual dimorphism Size differences Shape differences Discrete Traits Skull Glabella Brow ridges Supraorbital margins External occipital protuberance Supramastoid crest Mastoid process Temporal lines Nuchal lines Forehead Mandible Mental eminence Shape – U vs. V Angle of ascending ramus Width of ascending ramus Rugosity of gonial angle Flare of gonial angle Coxa Preauricular sulcus Pubic length (observed, not measured) Size of obturator foramen Shape of obturator foramen Height of auricular surface Sciatic notch Ventral arc Subpubic concavity Broadness of subpubic region (Medial aspect of ischiopubic ramus) Sacral curvature Sacral breadth Dorsal pubic pitting (Parturition scars) Size and shape of pelvic outlet Extremities Size of femoral head Size of the humeral head Rugosity of muscle attachments Size of articular surfaces Metric Traits Maximum cranial length Biepicondylar breadth Maximum head diameter Minimum midshaft diameter Bizygomatic breadth Basion-bregma Nasion-prosthion Parietal chord Pubis length Ischium length OBSERVE THE FOLLOWING, USING SPECIMENS OR YOUR NOTES/TEXTBOOKS: ? Why is it so difficult to determine the sex of sub-adult skeletons? ? Why is it important to factor in the ancestry of the individual when determining sex? ? Why is it important to factor in the activity level of the individual when determining sex? ? Using a pair of dial calipers, measure a humerus and plug tat values into the following discriminant formula (Jantz & Moore-Jansen 1988: 65, Table 48) to determine sex. Note: a score of >0=male and a score of <0=female. (INCLUDE THE DESCRIPTION OF THE MEASUREMENTS!!!! BASS 152&158) Biepicondylar breadth _____________ (A) Maximum head diameter _____________ (B) Minimum midshaft diameter _____________ (C) (A * 0.38574) + (B * 0.68813) + (C * 0.72249) – 66.85608 = _____________ ? Using spreading and sliding calipers, measure a cranium and plug the values into the following discriminant formula (from Jantz & Moore-Jansen 1988:56, Table 40) to determine sex. Note: a score of >0=male and a score of <0=female. (INCLUDE THE DESCRIPTION OF THE MEASUREMENTS!!!! BASS 68) Bizygomatic breadth _____________ (A) Max. cranial breadth _____________ (B) Basion-bregma _____________ (C) Nasion-prosthion _____________ (D) Parietal chord _____________ (E) (A * 0.40358) - (B * 0.23287) + (C * 0.15754) + (D * 0.20526) + (E * 0.26434) - 84.6585 = _____________ ? Using a pair of sliding calipers, measure a coxa and calculate the ischiopubic index to determine sex. (INCLUDE THE DESCRIPTION OF THE MEASUREMENTS!!!! BASS 199- 201) Pubis length _____________ Ischium length _____________ Index _____________ DID YOU KNOW…? ? Some researchers use dorsal pubic pitting to explain the incidence of childbirth. A select few will claim to be able determine the number of children the woman has had by the overall prevalence of the scar. Although less prevalent, dorsal pubic pitting has been found on male coxae as well. ? In some cases, scientists are able to assign sex to faunal remains. For example, deer coxa demonstrate sexual dimorphism, as do many other mammal coxae. This is not surprising when you take into consideration the fact that one of the attributes that makes us all mammals is that the female gives birth to live young! Laboratory 9 Aging In this lab, your goal is to understand how to assess the age of a specimen based on developmental and degenerative changes in the skeleton. You must be sure to use the proper error ranges when performing you analysis. TERMINOLOGY: General Developmental age (Relative age) Skeletal age Dental age Chronological age (Absolute age) Age ranges Subadult age ranges Fetal (0-9 lunar months) Infant (birth –12 months) Young child (1-4 years) Old child (5-9 years) Young teen (10-14 years) Old teen (15-19 years) Adult age ranges Young adult (20-34 years) Middle adult (35-49 years) Old adult (50+ years) Bone development Primary ossification centers Secondary ossification centers Fusion of primary ossification centers fusion of primary to secondary ossification centers Epiphyseal scoring system 0 = epiphysis not present due to developmental non-formation 1 = epiphysis present but not fused 0/1 = epiphysis not fused and cannot verify the presence or absence of the specimen 2 = epiphysis present and fusion is in the early stages 3 = epiphysis present and there is complete fusion (there may be a trance line present) Adult age estimation Skeletal Arthritis Osteoporosis Bone resorption Pubic symphysis Auricular surface Cranial sutures Distal rib ends Dental Dental eruption Alveolar eruption Soft tissue eruption (Gum eruption) Dental wear Cement deposition Root dentin transparency Gustafson’s method OBSERVE THE FOLLOWING, USING SPECIMENS OR YOUR NOTES/TEXTBOOKS: ? Sometimes, small rodent bones are mistakenly identified as infant or juvenile remains. How would you avoid this potentially embarrassing misidentification? ? What is the difference between chronological age and developmental age? When is it appropriate to use each? ? What is the advantage to using broad age estimates on skeletal remains, rather than exact point estimates? ? Understand how to assess the age of a specimen based on tooth formation, eruption patterns, and/or wear. ? Understand how to assess the age of a specimen based on epiphyseal formation and/or fusion. ? Understand how to assess the age of a specimen based on degenerative changes in the cranial and postcranial skeleton. ? When does the medial epiphysis of the clavicle fuse? Why is this important? ? By what age is the entire deciduous dentition erupted? By what age is the entire adult dentition erupted? ? Why might seriation of subadult limb bones be beneficial in assessing their age? ? Examine the sutures of any cranium available to you. Examine 1 cm sections in the following areas: the center of the right coronal suture, ectocranially ____________ (CRQ) 1/3 the distance back from bregma to lambda on the ____________ (ASQ) sagittal suture, ectocranially the center of the left lambdoid suture, endocranially ____________ (LLZ) surrounding bremga, endocranially ____________ (BRZ) Score the areas according to the following schema: 0 = no fusion 1 = less than 50% fusion 2 = 51-99% fusion 3 = complete fusion Plug the values scored above into the following multiple regression formula, created by Dr. Nawrocki (1998) for black and white males and females. (CRQ * 5.56) – (ASQ * 4.46) + (LLZ * 4.76) + (BRZ * 6.89) + 29.3 = __________________ DID YOU KNOW…? ? Tooth wear can be a valuable indicator of age in faunal specimens as well. Criteria established to assess the age of non-human materials can be used in the investigation of unlawful hunting or poaching. Laboratory 10 Ancestry TERMINOLOGY: Discrete Cranial Skull Cranial vault Post-bregmatic depression Overall vault form Oval window appearance Facial skeleton Nasal sill Nasal spine Internasal breadth Nasal root morphology Zygomaxillary suture form Anterior zygomatic projection Prognathism Palatine torus Dentition Incisor shoveling Tooth wear [degree and pattern] Edge-to-edge occlusion Tooth size Crenulation Carabelli’s cusp [upper M1] Mandible Mandibular tori Posterior ramus form Inferior corpus form Postcranial Femur Proximal torsion Shaft curvature 30 1